Map Introduction

The Fragmentation of the Tibetan Tribes and the Rise of Local Regimes (Late 9th Century – Early 11th Century)

Following the collapse of the Tibetan Empire (842 AD), the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau fragmented into a state of division, described as "tribes and peoples scattered, the larger ones comprising several thousand households, the smaller ones just over a hundred." In the He-Huang region, the Tsongkha (Qingtang) regime, centered around Gusiluo, gradually coalesced (c. 1009 AD). Through an alliance with the Song to resist the Tangut Xi Xia, it controlled prefectures such as Xi, He, Tao, and Min. At its peak, its territory spanned over three thousand li and contained a population of approximately one million.

The Tibetan Political Landscape within the Song-Liao Confrontation (1038–1127 AD)

After Yuanhao of Western Xia declared himself Emperor (1038 AD), the Gusiluo regime became a focal point of contention between the Song and Xia. The Tsongkha Tibetans consolidated their position through victories at the Battle of Sandugu (1016 AD) and the Battle of the Huangshui River (1036 AD), receiving from the Song court the title of Military Commissioner of Hexi. The Liao Dynasty, meanwhile, maintained loose connections with various Tibetan tribes through its Northwestern Pacification Commission, creating a four-way strategic game involving the Song, Liao, Xi Xia, and the Tibetans.

Northern Song Expansion into He-Huang and the Fall of the Tibetan Regime (1068–1127 AD)

During the reforms of Wang Anshi, the Song Dynasty pursued a strategy of "taking the Xi-He region and recovering He-Huang." Following Wang Shao's frontier initiatives, the Song successively recaptured prefectures like Xi, He, Tao, and Min. The last leader of the Gusiluo regime, Longsan, defected to Western Xia. Song forces finally occupied the He-Huang region in 1108 AD, and in 1127 AD, Zhao Huai'en was enfeoffed as the Prince of Longyou by the Song.

Cultural Continuity and Geopolitical Influence of the Tibetan Tribes

Despite the political changes, Tibetan Buddhist culture continued to develop, with Tsongkha City becoming a center for Tibetan Buddhism. The Epic of King Gesar, drawing prototypes from the deeds of Gusiluo, formed a unique cultural memory. The Liao Dynasty maintained indirect contact with the Tibetans through the Shiwei tribes, forming a cultural corridor linking the steppes with the high plateau.