Map Introduction

The Sixteen Kingdoms Period (304–439 AD) was a major era of fragmentation in Chinese history, following the fall of the Western Jin Dynasty and preceding the Northern and Southern Dynasties. Numerous regimes emerged successively in northern and southwestern China. Below is the detailed historical evolution of four of these regimes: Cheng-Han, Former Zhao, Former Liang, and Later Zhao.

Cheng-Han (304–347 AD) * Founder: Li Xiong (of the Di people) * Origins: In the late Western Jin, a refugee uprising broke out in Yi Province (modern Sichuan). Di leaders Li Te and Li Liu led the resistance against Jin rule. In 304 AD, Li Xiong declared himself "Prince of Chengdu" in Chengdu, later proclaiming himself emperor and establishing the state of Cheng. * Development: * During Li Xiong's reign (304–334 AD), he focused on people's welfare, lightened corvée labor and taxes, leading to relative stability in Shu. * Later, internal strife became frequent. Li Shou (Li Xiong's cousin) usurped the throne and changed the state's name to Han (338 AD), historically referred to as Cheng-Han. * In 349 AD, Li Shi ascended the throne and ruled tyrannically. The Eastern Jin general Huan Wen led a campaign that conquered Cheng-Han in 347 AD. * Collapse: Conquered by Huan Wen of Eastern Jin in 347 AD.

Former Zhao (304–329 AD) * Founder: Liu Yuan (of the Xiongnu people) * Origins: After the War of the Eight Princes during the Western Jin, the Xiongnu noble Liu Yuan took advantage of the chaos to raise an army. In 304 AD, he declared himself "Prince of Han" in Zuogu City (modern Lishi, Shanxi), adopting Han as his state's name (claiming inheritance of the Han dynasty legitimacy). * Development: * After Liu Yuan's death, his son Liu Cong succeeded him. In 311 AD, he captured Luoyang and captured Emperor Huai of Jin (the Disaster of Yongjia). * In 316 AD, Liu Yao (a clansman of Liu Yuan) captured Chang'an, leading to the fall of the Western Jin. * In 318 AD, after Liu Cong's death, Liu Yao moved the capital to Chang'an and changed the state's name to Zhao (historically known as Former Zhao). * Collapse: * In 329 AD, Shi Le of Later Zhao defeated Liu Yao at the Battle of Luoyang, leading to the fall of Former Zhao.

Former Liang (301–376 AD) * Founder: Zhang Gui (Han Chinese) * Origins: In the late Western Jin, Zhang Gui was appointed Inspector of Liang Province (301 AD) and effectively became a semi-independent ruler of the Hexi Corridor (modern western Gansu). * Development: * The Zhang family ruled Liang Province for generations, nominally submitting to Eastern Jin while operating independently. * During the reign of Zhang Jun (Zhang Gui's grandson, 324–346 AD), the state was powerful, controlled parts of the Western Regions, and experienced cultural prosperity. * In 376 AD, Fu Jian of Former Qin sent armies to conquer Former Liang. Zhang Tianxi surrendered. * Characteristics: It was one of the few Han Chinese-led regimes among the Sixteen Kingdoms, preserving Central Plains culture and providing refuge for many northern scholar-official families.

Later Zhao (319–351 AD) * Founder: Shi Le (of the Jie people) * Origins: Shi Le was originally a subordinate of Liu Yuan under Former Zhao. In 319 AD, he broke away from Former Zhao, declared himself Prince of Zhao, and established his capital at Xiangguo (modern Xingtai, Hebei). * Development: * Shi Le employed Han Chinese advisors (like Zhang Bin) and implemented policies of sinicization, strengthening the state. * In 329 AD, he conquered Former Zhao, unifying most of northern China. * After Shi Le's death, his nephew Shi Hu usurped the throne. His brutal rule provoked widespread popular unrest. * Collapse: * After Shi Hu's death in 349 AD, Later Zhao was plunged into internal strife. Ran Min (a Han Chinese general) established the short-lived Ran Wei. * By 351 AD, the remaining forces of Later Zhao were eliminated by Former Yan, Eastern Jin, and others.

Interrelations and the Pattern of the Sixteen Kingdoms * Former Zhao and Later Zhao: Shi Le of Later Zhao was originally part of Former Zhao before becoming independent and ultimately conquering it. * The Unique Position of Former Liang: It maintained long-term stability in the Hexi Corridor and was never directly controlled by Former Zhao or Later Zhao. * The Isolation of Cheng-Han: Located in the southwest, it had relatively little interaction with the other regimes.

The Sixteen Kingdoms period was characterized by frequent regime changes and a complex mix of ethnic conflict and integration. This turbulent era set the stage for the eventual unification of northern China under the Northern Wei Dynasty.