Map Introduction

I. Distribution and Migration of the Khitan People in the Liao Dynasty

The Liao Dynasty (907–1125 AD) was dominated by the Khitan people, whose core territory was the West Liao River basin (modern southeastern Inner Mongolia). Through warfare, Liao Taizu, Yelü Abaoji, captured large numbers of Han Chinese populations, relocating them to the Luan River basin (from modern western Liaoning to northern Hebei). He implemented a settlement policy of "building walled cities and dividing them into wards and markets." During the reign of Liao Taizong, the acquisition of the Sixteen Prefectures of Yan and Yun (from modern Beijing to Datong in Shanxi) from Shi Jingtang allowed Khitan influence to penetrate deep into the North China Plain. The Khitan nobility adopted a policy of "governing according to custom," implementing the prefecture-county system in Han-inhabited areas while retaining the tribal system on the steppe, thus forming the dual administrative system of the Northern and Southern Divisions.

II. The Ethnic Minority Landscape within the Northern Song Realm

The Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127 AD) primarily contended with three major ethnic minority regimes:

• The Tanguts: Originally inhabiting Qinghai and Gansu, they established the Western Xia in 1038 AD, controlling the Hexi Corridor and the Hetao region. Their population movements were often war-induced, such as the southward migration of some Tanguts into northern Shaanxi following the Song-Xia wars.
• Southwestern Peoples: Included the Dali Kingdom (led by the Bai people), various Tibetan tribes, and the ancestors of the Miao and Yao peoples. The Northern Song exercised indirect rule over these groups through the loose-rein prefecture (jimi zhou) system.
• Southern 'Man' Peoples: Yao, Miao, and other groups in the Jinghu North and South Routes (modern Hunan and Hubei) often migrated towards the mountainous regions of Lingnan due to tax oppression.

III. Driving Factors behind Ethnic Migrations

• War Captives: Records from the early Liao, such as "capturing 95,000 persons," indicate large-scale forced population transfers.
• Economic Complementarity: Trade at the supervised markets (quechang) between the Song and Liao prompted Khitan pastoralists to move southward to the border regions, while Han merchants ventured north beyond the passes.
• Policy Guidance: The Northern Song implemented the "Archer" military farming system for submitted "ripe/shu households" (Qiang, Tangut, etc.) to stabilize the northwestern frontier.

IV. Cultural Integration and Identity

The Liao Dynasty implemented a dual-track system: "governing the Khitans with their own institutions and administering Han Chinese with Han systems." Khitan nobility widely adopted Han culture; for instance, Emperor Shengzong adopted Han surnames and implemented the imperial examination system. The Northern Song maintained peace with the Liao and Western Xia through its annual tribute policy, which objectively fostered economic and cultural exchange in ethnically mixed areas. These interactions laid the groundwork for the unified multi-ethnic state of the subsequent Yuan Dynasty.

Key Concepts

• Northern Song Dynasty
• Ethnic Minorities
• Population Distribution
• Population Migration