I. The Rise of the Mongols and the Establishment of the Yuan Dynasty

In 1206, Temüjin unified the Mongol tribes and established the Great Mongol State. Through three major western expeditions, its territory expanded into Eastern Europe. In 1253, Kublai Khan led his army to conquer the Dali Kingdom, securing control over the southwest. In 1271, Kublai Khan adopted "Great Yuan" as the dynastic name, established his capital at Dadu (modern Beijing), and formally founded the Yuan Dynasty. Following the naval Battle of Yashan in 1279, the Yuan completed the unification of the Southern Song, ending the period of fragmentation that had persisted since the late Tang.

II. Political System and Governance Characteristics

The Yuan Dynasty implemented the Branch Secretariat system, dividing the country into 10 administrative provinces to strengthen central authority. It enforced a four-class ethnic hierarchy, leading to sharp ethnic conflicts. Kublai Khan adopted a dual governance strategy, utilizing both "Han Chinese methods" and traditional Mongol institutions. He重用 Han ministers like Liu Bingzhong and Xu Heng to promote Sinicization reforms. In 1307, Emperor Wuzong of Yuan posthumously honored Confucius as the "Great Accomplishment, the Ultimate Sage and Cultural King," reinforcing Confucian ideology in governance.

III. Economic and Cultural Development

The Yuan Dynasty issued paper currency and established a comprehensive monetary system. It dredged the Grand Canal, facilitating economic exchange between north and south. Overseas trade flourished, attracting foreign merchants like Marco Polo to China. Yuan drama and variety plays became mainstream literary forms, and Guo Shoujing's compilation of the Season-Granting Calendar was a world-leading achievement. Tibetan Buddhism was designated as the state religion, and the Imperial Preceptor system was established.

IV. Foreign Expeditions and Failures

The Yuan launched two unsuccessful invasions of Japan and also failed in its southern campaigns against Vietnam and Java. Around 1300, the Yuan territory reached its zenith, stretching north to Siberia and south to the South China Sea.

V. Decline and Fall

By the mid-Yuan period, finances had deteriorated. Extravagant grants to the nobility during Emperor Wuzong's reign depleted the state treasury. The new policies of Emperor Yingzong triggered the Coup, interrupting the reforms. The Red Turban Rebellion erupted in 1351. In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang captured Dadu, forcing Emperor Shun to flee north, which marked the fall of the Yuan Dynasty.

Although the Yuan Dynasty lasted only 98 years, its Branch Secretariat system and policies on ethnic integration profoundly influenced later periods. Its rise and fall exemplify the clash and fusion of nomadic and agrarian civilizations.

Complete Historical Map of China during the Yuan Dynasty (Zhiyuan 17th Year, 1280 AD) displays the following legend:

• Capital — Dadu Road
• Capital of Vassal Khanates — Talas
• Provincial Seat — Yangzhou Road
• Road-level Seat — Guangzhou Road
• Other Settlements — Taiping
• Political/Tribal Boundaries
• Princely Fiefdom Boundaries
• Provincial Administrative Boundaries
• Current National Boundaries
• Current Capital — Beijing
• Current Seats of Municipal, Provincial, and Autonomous Regional Governments — Shanghai
• Current Municipal Government Seat — Dandong
• Current Other Settlements — Mohe

Note: This map is from the Zhiyuan 17th Year, 1280 AD.

The map is sourced from The Historical Atlas of China edited by Tan Qixiang.

Key Points

• Yuan Dynasty