Map Introduction

I. Regime Establishment and Initial Confrontation (960–979 AD)

Following the establishment of the Northern Song Dynasty, Emperor Taizu strengthened central authority through the famous "Dismissal of Military Leaders at a Feast." However, he was ultimately unable to recover the Sixteen Prefectures of Yan and Yun, which had been ceded by the Later Jin. The Liao Dynasty, meanwhile, implemented a dual administrative system through its Northern and Southern Divisions to govern both the Khitan and Han Chinese territories, while maintaining economic ties with the Northern Song via regulated border markets. In 979 AD, immediately after Emperor Taizong of Song conquered the Northern Han, he launched the Battle of the Gaoliang River, besieging Youzhou. The campaign ended in a disastrous defeat for the Song forces, who were outflanked by Yelü Xiuge. Pursuing Liao cavalry inflicted heavy losses on the retreating Song army as far as Mancheng and Waqiaoguan.

II. The Chanyuan Treaty and a Century of Peace (1004–1120 AD)

In 1004 AD, Emperor Shengzong of Liao personally led an expedition that reached Chanzhou. After Emperor Zhenzong of Song also took to the field, a peace treaty was signed: the Northern Song agreed to provide the Liao with an annual tribute of 100,000 taels of silver and 200,000 bolts of silk, and the Baigou River was established as the border. For the subsequent 120 years, the two states maintained an economic symbiosis, with annual trade volume at the border markets reaching 1.5 million strings of cash. At its peak, the Liao territory stretched to the Sea of Japan in the east, the Stanovoy Range in the north, the Irtysh River in the west, and bordered the Northern Song at the Baigou River in the south, covering a larger area than the Northern Song.

III. The Decline of Liao and the Fall of Northern Song (1120–1125 AD)

Corruption under Emperor Tianzuo in the late Liao period, coupled with the rise of the Jurchens who established the Jin Dynasty in 1115 AD, led to the Liao's downfall. The Northern Song allied with the Jin to destroy the Liao, which fell in 1125 AD. Immediately after, Jin forces turned south and invaded the Northern Song, resulting in the Jingkang Incident of 1127 AD and the collapse of the Northern Song. Throughout its 218-year history, the Liao's military confrontations and peaceful exchanges with the Northern Song profoundly influenced the political landscape of East Asia.

IV. Economic Interaction and Trade Systems

After the Chanyuan Treaty, the Song and Liao established regulated border markets in places like Xiongzhou and Bazhou. The Song primarily exported spices, medicines, and silk textiles, while the Liao exported livestock such as sheep, horses, and camels. The Liao Dynasty achieved an integration of nomadic and agrarian economies through its system of Five Capitals.

V. Cultural Integration and Institutional Innovation

The Liao Dynasty pioneered the "Northern and Southern Administration Systems," a policy of "governing according to custom," where the Northern Administration managed Khitan affairs and the Southern Administration, modeled on the Tang system, governed the Han population. The Northern Song, conversely, developed a centralized "Two Prefectures and Three Departments" system, where the Bureau of Military Affairs controlled the military and the Three Bureaus managed finances.

Historical Impact and Assessment

The evolution of Song-Liao relations, from confrontation to a form of integration, provided a significant model for later generations in handling ethnic relations. The Liao's political institutional designs, such as the dual administration system, and its diplomatic model, the "Chanyuan System," had a profound influence on subsequent dynasties like the Jin and Yuan. The military weakness of the Northern Song and the dual governance model of the Liao collectively shaped the political structure of East Asia during the 10th to 12th centuries.