Map Introduction

Historical Evolution of the Later Han during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (947–951 AD)

I. Foundation of the Regime and Territorial Overview

The Later Han was the fourth Central Plains dynasty of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. Established in 947 AD by the Shatuo general Liu Zhiyuan, with its capital at Bianjing (modern Kaifeng, Henan), it lasted a mere four years (947–951 AD), making it the shortest-lived regime among the Five Dynasties. Its territory, inherited from the Later Jin, encompassed core areas including modern Henan, Shandong, most of Shanxi, and parts of Shaanxi, Hebei, and Hubei. While nominally controlling the Central Plains, its actual authority was constrained by powerful, semi-autonomous military governors throughout the realm. Liu Zhiyuan, formerly the Military Governor of Hedong under the Later Jin, capitalized on the chaos following the Khitan's destruction of the Later Jin to declare himself Emperor in Taiyuan. He subsequently marched south, recaptured Kaifeng, and formally established the Later Han regime.

II. Founding Rule and Political Characteristics

• Rule of Liu Zhiyuan: As the founding emperor, Liu Zhiyuan (895–948 AD) established his rule through military strength. His reign continued the warlord practices characteristic of the Five Dynasties, heavily relying on corrupt officials and fostering maladministration. After his accession, he initially retained the Later Jin era name "Tianfu" before adopting the new era name "Qianyou" the following year. However, he failed to effectively resolve the frontier crises left by the Khitans.
• Power Structure: The Later Han regime depended on the support of military cliques, resulting in weak central authority. On his deathbed, Liu Zhiyuan entrusted his young son to powerful ministers like Yang Bin and Shi Hongzhao. This led to these regents dominating the court after the accession of the young Emperor Yin, Liu Chengyou, sowing the seeds for internal conflict.

III. Collapse of the Regime and Key Events

• Escalation of Internal Contradictions: The young Emperor Yin, Liu Chengyou (r. 948–951 AD), resented the domination of the powerful ministers. In the third year of Qianyou (950 AD), he conspired to eliminate key figures like Guo Wei. This backfired, prompting Guo Wei to preemptively strike, triggering the Yedu Mutiny.
• Replacement by the Later Zhou: Guo Wei led his army into Kaifeng. The young Emperor Yin was killed, and the Later Han fell. In 951 AD, Guo Wei declared himself Emperor, establishing the Later Zhou. The Later Han thus became the only dynasty among the Five Dynasties to be directly overthrown and replaced by one of its own powerful ministers.

IV. Economic and Cultural Impact

• Economic Hardships: Warfare led to economic devastation. The court increased taxes to maintain military strength, placing a heavy burden on the populace. Policies like the state monopolies on salt and iron were continued from previous dynasties but were implemented chaotically, exacerbating the people's hardships.
• Cultural Limitations: Its brief existence prevented the Later Han from achieving significant cultural accomplishments. While woodblock printing technology continued to develop, and the government printed classics like the Rites of Zhou, the overall cultural landscape was stifled by incessant warfare.

V. Historical Assessment and Legacy

The Later Han is regarded as a quintessential microcosm of the chaotic Five Dynasties era:

• Reasons for its Short Lifespan: Its rapid collapse resulted from a combination of factors: the ruler's short reign (Liu Zhiyuan ruled for only one year), domination by powerful ministers, military failures, and economic breakdown.
• Institutional Influence: Its downfall accelerated the reforms implemented by Emperor Shizong of the subsequent Later Zhou, which helped lay the groundwork for the centralized authority system of the Northern Song Dynasty.
• Academic Perspectives: Modern scholars generally view the tyranny and disorder of the Later Han as reflecting the inherent flaws of the warlord politics defining the Five Dynasties. Its brief existence highlights the fragility of political legitimacy in an era of fragmentation.