Map Introduction

Historical Evolution of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907–979 AD)

I. Historical Background and Political Landscape

The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period was a continuation of the separatist rule by military governors (Jiedushi) that marked the late Tang Dynasty. Spanning 72 years from Zhu Wen's usurpation of the Tang to establish the Later Liang in 907 AD, until the Northern Song's conquest of Northern Han in 979 AD, this era witnessed five short-lived dynasties—Later Liang, Later Tang, Later Jin, Later Han, and Later Zhou (collectively remembered by the rhyme "Zhu, Li, Shi, Liu, Guo — Liang, Tang, Jin, Han, Zhou")—successively controlling the Central Plains. Concurrently, ten major separatist regimes, such as Former Shu, Later Shu, Southern Wu, and Southern Tang, existed in the south and the Hedong region. This period was characterized by frequent regime changes and constant warfare. However, relative stability in the south accelerated its economic development, making this a crucial phase in the southward shift of China's economic center of gravity.

II. The Succession of the Five Dynasties and Their Political Features

• The Later Liang Replaces the Tang (907–923 AD): Zhu Wen, a former general of the Huang Chao Rebellion who surrendered to the Tang, gradually seized control of the central government and ultimately deposed the last Tang emperor to found the Later Liang. Although based in Kaifeng, its actual control was largely limited to northern China, with rivals like Li Keyun, Prince of Jin, and Li Maozhen, Prince of Qi, continuing to use Tang reign titles in opposition. During the Liang-Jin contention, the defeat of the Later Liang's elite forces at the Battle of Baixiang (921 AD) paved the way for the rise of the Later Tang.

• From Later Tang to Later Zhou (923–960 AD): Li Cunxu destroyed the Later Liang and established the Later Tang, implementing reforms which were, however, undermined by internal strife leading to its rapid decline. Shi Jingtang of the Later Jin ceded the Sixteen Prefectures of Yan and Yun to the Khitans. Following the brief rule of Liu Zhiyuan of the Later Han, Guo Wei founded the Later Zhou. His policies, including the Equal-field System and reorganization of the Imperial Guards, laid the groundwork for the eventual unification under the Northern Song. The Five Dynasties saw a total of thirteen emperors from eight different families, with an average reign duration of merely 10.8 years, highlighting the instability inherent in a politics dominated by military power.

III. The Ten Kingdoms: Separatism, Economy, and Culture

• Development of Southern Regimes:

  • Southern Tang: After Li Bian replaced Southern Wu, he established his capital at Jinling (Nanjing). The regime achieved notable cultural accomplishments (exemplified by the lyric poetry of Li Yu), but its strength was sapped by failed northern expeditions in its later years.
  • Wuyue: Under Qian Liu, it focused on hydraulic projects and developing overseas trade, making Hangzhou a major economic center in the southeast.
  • Jingnan (Nanping): Ruled by Gao Jixing from the strategic hub of Jiangling, it sustained itself through a "rogue-state survival" strategy of plundering tribute and engaging in re-export trade.

• Economy and Culture: Most of the southern states prioritized agriculture (e.g., the seawalls along the Qiantang River in Wuyue) and commerce (e.g., the maritime trade of Min). In contrast, the northern economy suffered severely from incessant warfare. Culturally, significant breakthroughs were made in the lyric poetry (Ci), notably by the "Flowers and Lanes School" and the "Two Southern Tang Masters," and in painting, such as the landscape works of Jing Hao.

IV. Unification under the Northern Song and Historical Impact

In 960 AD, Zhao Kuangyin seized power through the Chenqiao Mutiny and established the Northern Song Dynasty. He then systematically eliminated the separatist regimes: conquering Jingnan in 963 AD, Later Shu in 965 AD, Southern Tang in 975 AD, and finally Northern Han in 979 AD. The fragmentation of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period accelerated the decline of the aristocratic clans, spurred the revival of the imperial examination system, and provided valuable lessons for the reforms that strengthened central authority in the Song Dynasty.