Map Introduction

Historical Evolution of the Balhae Kingdom during China's Tang Dynasty Period (698–926 AD)

I. Founding Background and Establishment of the Regime

The Balhae Kingdom was established in 698 AD by Dae Jo-yeong, leader of the Sumo Mohe tribe, at Dongmo Mountain (modern Dunhua, Jilin). It was initially named "Zhenguo" (State of Zhen). Its founding was closely linked to the situation in the Tang Dynasty's northeast: after the Mohe people participated in and failed the "Yingzhou Rebellion" in 696 AD, they migrated eastward. Seizing the opportunity presented by the Turks blocking the Tang's northeastern routes, Dae Jo-yeong established his regime. In 713 AD, Emperor Xuanzong of Tang enfeoffed Dae Jo-yeong as the "Prince of Balhae" and appointed him as Governor of Huhan Prefecture, formally establishing the name "Balhae" and its status as a tributary state of the Tang. In 762 AD, the Tang court elevated it to the status of a "kingdom" (guo), marking an enhancement of its political standing.

II. Territorial Expansion and Administrative Structure

At its peak, Balhae's territory spanned "five thousand li," extending north to the Tongjiang section of the Heilongjiang (Amur) River, east to the Sea of Japan, south to the Pyeonggang River (or another boundary river, historically 'Nihe') bordering Silla, and west to the Khitans. It implemented a "Five Capitals and Fifteen Prefectures" system modeled on the Tang:

• Five Capitals: Sanggyeong (Longquan Prefecture, modern Ning'an, Heilongjiang); Junggyeong (Hyondeok Prefecture, modern Helong, Jilin); Donggyeong (Yongwon Prefecture, modern Hunchun, Jilin); Seogyeong (Amnok Prefecture, modern Linjiang, Jilin); Namgyeong (Namhae Prefecture, modern North Hamgyong Province, North Korea).
• Administrative Divisions: It governed 62 prefectures and over 130 counties, forming a comprehensive prefecture-county management system. Its capital moved five times before finally settling at Sanggyeong (Longquan Prefecture), whose extant ruins represent one of the largest city sites of Northeast Asia from the Tang period.

III. Political Interactions with the Tang Dynasty

As a loosely administered Tang regime, Balhae maintained a high degree of autonomy while consistently paying tribute:

• Investiture System: Successive Balhae rulers received investiture from the Tang court, used Tang reign titles but retained their own officialdom system.
• Diplomatic Incident: In the mid-8th century, King Mu (Dae Mu-ye) of Balhae clashed with the Tang in the Dengzhou War due to his expansion against the Heishui Mohe, but later apologized and reconciled.
• Cultural Bond: Balhae sent numerous international students to the Tang, comprehensively absorbing Tang institutions and legal systems, fostering a cultural identity poetically described as "[our] carts and books are one family."

IV. Economic and Cultural Development

• Economic Features:
  • Agriculture: Introduced Tang farming techniques, making the Balhae Bay area an important granary.
  • Handicrafts: Renowned for "Balhae Mohe embroidery" and "Zacheng drums," it engaged in maritime trade with Japan and Silla.
  • Tributary Trade: Paid tribute to the Tang over 130 times, primarily via the "Tributary Route" (Balhae–Chang'an route).
• Cultural Achievements:
  • Writing: Created "Balhae script" (a variant form of Chinese characters).
  • Architecture: Sanggyeong was modeled on Chang'an's layout, featuring triple-walled structure: the palace city, imperial city, and outer city.
  • Religion: Buddhism flourished, leaving behind numerous stone Buddha statues.

V. Demise and Historical Impact

In 926 AD, Taizu of the Khitan (Liao Dynasty), Yelü Abaoji, led his army to capture Sanggyeong (Huhan City). The last king, Dae In-seon, surrendered, leading to the fall of the Balhae Kingdom. The Khitans established the Dongdan Kingdom in its former territories, and the Balhae people gradually integrated into the Khitan, Jurchen, and other ethnic groups. Lasting 228 years, this kingdom, as a significant political entity on the Tang's northeastern frontier, holds historical importance in several aspects:

• Geopolitical Value: It acted as a buffer between the Tang and the Khitans/Turks.
• Cultural Contribution: It promoted the formation of the "Sinic cultural sphere" in Northeast Asia.
• Economic Legacy: It laid the foundation for the subsequent development of the Northeast region.