Map Introduction

The Origin of the Turks and the Establishment of the Khaganate

The Turkic people originated north of modern-day Xinjiang's Junggar Basin and gradually migrated eastward. In 552 AD, their chieftain, Ashina Tumen, established the Turkic Khaganate, proclaiming himself the Illig Khagan and setting his headquarters at Mount Dujin (modern Khangai Mountains in Mongolia). It rapidly became the most powerful nomadic regime in the north. In 583 AD, the Khaganate split into the Eastern and Western Turkic Khaganates. The Eastern Turks, located north of the Tang Dynasty, were also known as the Northern Turks. From the late Sui to early Tang period, the Eastern Turkic Khaganate reached its zenith, commanding a massive cavalry force and frequently invading southward, even posing a direct threat to Chang'an.

The Tang Dynasty's Confrontation with the Eastern Turks

In the early Tang period, Illig Khagan of the Eastern Turks repeatedly attacked the border. In 626 AD, he led a 200,000-strong army directly towards Chang'an, forcing Emperor Taizong of Tang to agree to the Wei River Covenant. However, Emperor Taizong prepared vigorously for war. Seizing the opportunity presented by rebellions against the Turks by tribes like the Xueyantuo and Uyghurs, he sent generals Li Jing and Li Ji on a northern expedition in 629 AD. The following year, they captured Illig Khagan, leading to the collapse of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. The Tang settled roughly half of the surrendered Turkic population in a belt from Lingwu to Youzhou, establishing loose-rein prefectures to govern them. The remainder were relocated to Chang'an, and many Turkic nobles received official positions. This success led to Emperor Taizong being honored as the "Heavenly Khagan."

The Restoration and Decline of the Later Turkic Khaganate

After the fall of the Eastern Turks, Ashina Qutlugh reestablished a khaganate in 682 AD, historically known as the Later Turkic Khaganate. His brother, Qapaghan Khagan, who succeeded him, accepted a title from Empress Wu Zetian but continued to raid the southern borders frequently. The Later Turkic Khaganate declined due to internal strife and the rise of the Uyghurs, leading to its conquest by the Uyghurs in 744 AD. Some of its tribes subsequently submitted to the Tang Dynasty.

Rise and Fall of the Western Turkic Khaganate

At its peak, the Western Turkic Khaganate's territory stretched east to the Eastern Turks, west to the Caspian Sea, south to Kashgar, and north to the vast steppes. The Tang Dynasty gradually weakened the Western Turks by allying with tribes like the Uyghurs. In 657 AD, the general Su Dingfang defeated the Western Turkic Khaganate, and the Tang established loose-rein prefectures and provinces to administer the region.

Integration of the Turks into the Tang Dynasty

The Tang Dynasty adopted a policy of "using barbarians to control barbarians" towards the Turks, often retaining their tribal structures and appointing Turkic nobles as military governors. A significant number of Turks integrated into Central Plains society, with some nobles holding official posts in Chang'an, thereby promoting ethnic integration. The Tang also supported the Turkic transition to agriculture, exemplified by Empress Wu Zetian providing seeds and farming tools.