Map Introduction

Historical Evolution of the Regional Commands (Fanzhen) during the Yuanhe Era of the Tang Dynasty (806-820 AD)

I. The Landscape of Regional Commands in the Early Yuanhe Period

During the Yuanhe era (806-820 AD), the Tang Empire comprised approximately 48 regional commands (fanzhen), largely based on the fifteen circuits established during Emperor Xuanzong's reign. These commands can be categorized into three types:

• Autonomous Commands: Approximately 15 circuits, including the Three Provinces of Hebei (Youzhou/Lulong, Chengde, Weibo), Huaixi, and Ziqing, encompassing 71 prefectures. They did not report household registers to the central government and maintained de facto control over their own military, administrative, and financial powers.
• Defensive Commands: About 14 circuits, such as the Eastern Capital (Dongdu), Tongzhou, and Shanguo, primarily tasked with guarding the Central Plains region, demonstrating partial obedience to the central court.
• Frontier Commands: Roughly 9 circuits, including Xichuan, Lingnan, and Annan, responsible for defending against external threats like the Tibetan Empire and Nanzhao.

II. Emperor Xianzong's Policy of Subduing the Commands and Military Campaigns

Emperor Xianzong (Li Chun) adopted a strategy of "subduing the weak before tackling the strong" to curb the power of the regional commands. Key measures included:

• Military Suppression:
  • Suppressed the rebellion of Liu Pi in Xichuan (806 AD), marking the beginning of the campaign.
  • Crushed the rebellion of Li Qi in Zhenhai (807 AD), executing him by dismemberment.
  • After a three-year campaign (814-817 AD), subdued the rebellion of Wu Yuanji in Huaixi, with notable contributions from generals like Pei Du and Li Su.
• Political Maneuvers:
  • Partitioned the territories of powerful commands (e.g., dividing Huaixi into three circuits).
  • Appointed civilian officials as military governors to weaken the power of military commanders.
  • Offered favorable treatment to compliant commands, such as Tian Hongzheng of Weibo.
• Pivotal Events:
  • The assassination of Chief Minister Wu Yuanheng (815 AD), which exposed the extreme hostility of some commands towards the central government.
  • The surprise attack on Caizhou on a snowy night (817 AD), which became the turning point in the Huaixi campaign.

III. Evolution of the Relationship between the Commands and the Central Government

• Initial Phase (806-814 AD):
  • Central authority was weakened; the hereditary succession of military governors in the Three Provinces of Hebei had become customary.
  • The eight southeastern commands provided crucial tax revenue, creating a dynamic where "the wealth of the southeast sustained the frontier troops of the northwest."
• Middle Phase (815-817 AD):
  • Established military deterrence through the victory in Huaixi, leading to the subsequent submission of Chengde and Weibo.
  • Implemented a strategy of "using commands to control commands," leveraging surrendered generals like Tian Hongzheng to check separatist forces.
• Later Phase (818-820 AD):
  • Achieved the situation known as the "Yuanhe Restoration," with most commands offering nominal obedience to the center.
  • However, the Three Provinces of Hebei still maintained a semi-independent status, their foundational autonomy remaining intact.

IV. Historical Impact and Assessment

• Short-Term Successes:
  • Achieved a brief period of unification where "order was restored both centrally and regionally, and discipline was re-established."
  • Improved central finances, with revenue from the Twice-Taxation system reaching over 30 million strings of cash.
• Long-Term Limitations:
  • Failed to resolve the underlying issues of hereditary succession and private armies within the commands.
  • After Emperor Xianzong's death (820 AD), policy reversals under Emperor Muzong led to renewed rebellion in Hebei.
• Historical Status:
  • Considered the most successful attempt to subdue the commands in the mid-Tang period.
  • Set the stage for the later "Niu-Li Partisan Strife" in the late Tang.
  • As historian Cen Zhongmian assessed: "The governance of the Yuanhe era was the pinnacle of the mid-Tang."

Although the Yuanhe campaign to subdue the commands did not completely resolve the issue, it significantly enhanced central authority through a combined strategy of military deterrence and political appeasement, thereby extending the Tang Dynasty's lifespan by over sixty years. Its strategy of "tackling the weak before the strong, employing both kindness and severity" remains a significant historical reference for managing central-local relations even today.