Map Introduction

Later Qin Founded by the Qiang leader Yao Chang in 384 AD, with its capital at Chang'an. Initially a dependency of the Former Qin, it later seized power amid internal strife within the Di-led Former Qin, becoming the last of the Sixteen Kingdoms to be replaced by a unified northern regime (falling in 417 AD). During its rule, it implemented sinicization policies, but internal conflicts within the ruling elite and military defeats (such as the Battle of Fei River) led to its fragmentation.

Northern Wei Established by the Xianbei leader Tuoba Gui in 386 AD, it unified northern China in 439 AD, bringing an end to the Sixteen Kingdoms period. Its early phase saw reigns under Emperor Daowu and Emperor Mingyuan, followed by reforms under Emperor Taiwu (Tuoba Tao), which led to a period of strength and prosperity. Unification was achieved through military conquest and ethnic integration.

Southern Liang Founded by the Tufa branch of the Xianbei in 397 AD, it occupied the Huangshui River valley. In 414 AD, it was conquered by the Western Qin due to internal strife. Its rule relied heavily on military plunder, and it ultimately fell due to corruption and internal power struggles.

Northern Liang
Established in 397 AD by the Lushui Hu, a branch of the Xiongnu, under the leadership of Juqu Mengxun. It unified the Hexi region through strategic maneuvering and moved its capital to Guzang in 412 AD. Later, faced with pressure from Central Plains regimes and internal power struggles, it was conquered by the Northern Wei in 439 AD.

Western Liang
Founded by the Han Chinese Li Gao in 400 AD, with its capital at Dunhuang. Initially, it recognized the Jin Dynasty as the legitimate authority, but its emphasis on civil administration over military strength led to its decline. It was conquered by the Later Qin in 417 AD.

Southern Yan
Established by the Murong branch of the Xianbei in 398 AD, it occupied the Shandong region. After defeating the Northern Wei in 409 AD, it moved its capital to Guanggu but was ultimately conquered by the Northern Wei in 410 AD.

Hu Xia
Founded by the Xiongnu leader Helian Bobo in 407 AD, with its capital at Tongwan City. In 428 AD, it was defeated by the Northern Wei due to internal strife and later conquered by the Tuyuhun.

Western Qin
Established by the Qifu branch of the Xianbei in 385 AD, it occupied the Gansu region. After a brief collapse in 409 AD, it was restored but was eventually defeated by the Northern Wei in 431 AD. Its rule relied on military conquest and tribal alliances but ultimately fragmented due to corruption and internal conflicts.

Northern Yan
Founded by the Han Chinese Feng Ba in 407 AD, it was conquered by the Northern Wei in 436 AD. Its existence was short-lived, and it was the only regime established by Han Chinese during the late Sixteen Kingdoms period.