Map Introduction

Former Liang (317–376 AD) * Founding: Amid the collapse of the Western Jin, Zhang Gui, the Governor of Liang Province, established the Former Liang in 317 AD. He set his capital at Guzang (modern Wuwei, Gansu), creating an independent regime in the northwest. * Development: The dynasty reached its zenith under the rule of Zhang Gui's son, Zhang Jun (346-376 AD). It controlled parts of modern Gansu, Ningxia, Qinghai, and Xinjiang, consolidating its rule through military reforms and policies promoting ethnic integration. * Collapse: It was conquered by the Di-led Former Qin in 376 AD, marking the end of the pattern of independent northwestern regimes.

Former Qin (384–417 AD) * Founding: Established in the Guanzhong region in 384 AD by Fu Hong, a leader of the Di people. Initially, it acknowledged the suzerainty of the Eastern Jin but gradually grew in strength. * Ascendancy: Under the rule of Fu Jian (384–408 AD), the Former Qin implemented reforms and achieved the unification of northern China. However, this period was also marked by frequent internal power struggles. * Collapse: The state fell to the Later Qin in 417 AD, due to intensifying conflicts between the Di and Han Chinese populations, coupled with corrupt governance.

Former Yan (337–384 AD) * Founding: Established by Murong Huang, a chieftain of the Xianbei people, in 337 AD. With its capital initially at Jicheng (modern Yixian, Liaoning), it became one of the earlier stable states among the Sixteen Kingdoms. * Expansion: Murong Huang consolidated his rule through campaigns against rivals like Duan Liao and Goguryeo. The kingdom's territory eventually encompassed Liaodong and parts of modern Hebei. * Collapse: It was overthrown in 384 AD following internal strife, by the general Murong Yong, who would later found the Western Yan.

Precursor to the Northern Wei (386–589 AD) * Origins: The Tuoba clan of the Xianbei people established a state in northern China. This polity initially operated under the name of the Dai Kingdom before gradually unifying the north. * Development: Tuoba Gui formally proclaimed himself emperor in 386 AD. Through a process of Sinicization reforms, he consolidated his rule, ultimately leading to the unification of Northern China and laying the foundation for the Northern Wei Dynasty.