Map Introduction

The 29th Year of the Kaiyuan Era, Tang Dynasty (741 AD), marked a critical juncture in the later reign of Emperor Xuanzong. Its historical evolution encompassed politics, military affairs, the economy, and frontier governance, simultaneously reflecting the lingering twilight of the Kaiyuan Prosperous Age and sowing the seeds for the impending Tianbao Crisis.

I. Political Reforms and Institutional Adjustments

Emperor Xuanzong continued to implement political innovations during the Kaiyuan era to consolidate central authority. In the 29th year of Kaiyuan, he further optimized famine relief policies, authorizing local prefects and county magistrates to open granaries and provide relief to victims before reporting to the court during famines. This measure significantly improved disaster response efficiency and alleviated social tensions caused by famine. Concurrently, Xuanzong strengthened the evaluation of officials. The annual assessments of local administrative performance by investigating commissioners effectively curbed bureaucratic corruption and maintained the operational effectiveness of the administrative system. Furthermore, the court ordered the establishment of temples dedicated to Emperor Xuanyuan (deified Laozi) in both capitals and all prefectures, and included texts like the Laozi in the imperial examination curriculum. This reflected the promotion of Daoist culture, aiming to stabilize the foundation of rule through religious indoctrination.

II. Military Conflicts and Frontier Governance

The military situation on the frontiers became increasingly tense in the 29th year of Kaiyuan. The Tibetan Empire assembled a massive force of 400,000 troops and invaded the Anren Army (northwest of modern Huangyuan, Qinghai). Tang general Zang Xiye led a force of just 5,000 to repel the enemy. However, by year's end, the Tibetans still managed to capture the Stone Fortress City (southwest of modern Xining, Qinghai), exposing the vulnerability of the northwestern defenses. Meanwhile, the Eastern Turkic Khaganate experienced frequent changes in leadership due to internal strife. Emperor Xuanzong seized this opportunity to pacify and win over tribes like the Uyghurs and Karluks to counterbalance Turkic power. This strategy enhanced Tang influence over the northern nomadic peoples. Militarily, Xuanzong continued to rely on the Jiedushi system. An Lushan, skilled in flattery, was promoted to Military Governor of Yingzhou and Pinglu Army, and his expanding power sowed the seeds for the subsequent An Lushan Rebellion.

III. Economic and Social Development

Economically, the Tang Dynasty continued the prosperity of the Kaiyuan era. The government reformed the grain reserve system, establishing the "Ever-Normal Granaries" to stabilize grain prices and ensure livelihood stability. The population continued to grow, with households increasing by approximately 2.37 million and the population by about 11.76 million from the beginning to the end of the Kaiyuan era, reflecting the recovery and development of the social economy. However, regional military governors gradually gained control over land tax revenues, leading to a weakening of central finances and a shift of economic gravity towards the localities. This exacerbated the power imbalance between the central government and the regional authorities.

IV. Cultural, Religious, and Scientific Achievements

The cultural sphere exhibited a trend of diverse integration. The active literary output of poets like Li Bai and Du Fu propelled a flourishing of literature. Both Buddhism and Daoism developed significantly. Three renowned Indian monks came to China to propagate Buddhism, known as the "Three Great Masters of Kaiyuan," fostering religious and cultural exchange. In science and technology, the monk Yi Xing measured the length of the meridian line and invented a water-driven armillary sphere, demonstrating the Tang Dynasty's leading position in scientific advancement. These achievements collectively constituted the peak of Kaiyuan culture, leaving a profound legacy for later generations.

V. Historical Turning Point and Subsequent Impact

The 29th year of Kaiyuan marked the critical tipping point for the Tang Dynasty's transition from prosperity to decline. Although political reforms and military strategies maintained stability in the short term, underlying problems such as the expanding power of military governors and the weakening of central finances became increasingly apparent. The rise of An Lushan and the military pressure from Tibet foreshadowed the internal and external crises of the subsequent Tianbao period. Furthermore, Xuanzong's excessive reliance on powerful ministers in his later years, exemplified by the deteriorating political atmosphere after Li Linfu assumed control, accelerated the decline of the prosperous age. The developments of this year laid the groundwork for the subsequent An Lushan Rebellion and the era of provincial separatism, profoundly influencing the historical trajectory of the Tang Dynasty.

Map Source

Online Historical Map of China in the 29th Year of the Kaiyuan Era, Tang Dynasty (741 AD)

This map is sourced from the Atlas of Chinese Geography. The atlas was chiefly edited by Wang Jing'ai and Zuo Wei, compiled by the Compilation Committee of the Atlas of Chinese Geography, and published by China Map Publishing House.

The map utilizes an Equal-Area Conic Projection and has a scale of 1:35,000,000.

This atlas comprises three main map groups: Physical Geography, Human Geography, and Resource Development & Land Management.

• The Physical Geography group includes 11 units: Natural Landscape, Geomorphology, Geology, Climate, Hydrology, Soil, Vegetation, Zoology, Oceanography, Physical Regionalization, and Evolution of the Natural Environment. This section forms the geographical foundation, primarily illustrating the types, intensity, and spatiotemporal distribution patterns of various physical geographical elements in China.
• The Human Geography group includes 7 units: Ancient Territories, Population, Urban and Rural Areas, Society Culture and Tourism, Transportation and Modern Communications, Education and Technology, and Economic Development. This is the section with the fastest-updating geographical data, mainly demonstrating the types, intensity, and spatiotemporal changes of various human and economic geographical elements in China.
• The Resource Development & Land Management group includes 10 units: Land Resources and Development, Water Resources and Development, Energy Resources and Development, Biological Resources and Development, Land Degradation and Ecological Construction, Natural Disasters and Mitigation, Environmental Pollution and Control, Endemic Diseases and Environment, Biodiversity and Nature Reserves, and Comprehensive Geographical Regionalization. Focusing on the "human-land relationship," this section reflects the characteristics and spatiotemporal patterns of China's natural resources, environmental issues arising from resource exploitation and utilization, and land management measures.

Note: Brown lines and annotations on the map represent modern features.

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